Keywords
defense expenditures
the US
Japan
How to Cite
Abstract
This paper analyzes the position of burden sharing between the US and Japan. The study describes the legal, political and military framework of the asymmetric relationship between these two countries and examines the financial conditions of the US military posture in Japan. In this context, several questions were posed: What is the cost sharing arrangement between Washington and Tokyo regarding deployment of the US troops and bases in Japan? What are the legal and financial constraints of Japan in its security relationship with the US? Should we expect any changes in the US – Japan burden sharing and how is that issue related to the US security policy against their European allies? The article uses comparative scientific literature and an analysis of source materials (legal acts, strategies, reports and statements). It argues that the Japanese government should reshape its security obligations aiming to keep the US
forces and installations at home.
References
Allied Joint Doctrine for Host Nation Support (2013) [Access:25.08.2020]. Access on the internet: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/ attachment_data/file/628308/ajp-4.5_edb_v1_e.pdf.
Awonahara, S. (1990). The Burden-Sharing Issues in US-Japan Security Relations. A Perspective from Japan. Honolulu: East-West Center [Access:1.09.2020]. Access on the internet: https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/10125/23828/BurdenSharingIssuesInUSJapanSecurityRelations1990%5Bpdfa%5D.PDF.
Borger, J. (2020). US to pull 12,000 troops out of Germany as Trump blasts ‘delinquent’
Berlin.“The Guardian”. [Access:9.09.2020]. Access on the internet: https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2020/jul/29/us-germany-troop-withdrawal-donald-trump.
Bosack, M.M. (2019). The Looming Cost-Sharing Storm. Mitigating the Impacts of Special Measures Agreement Negotiations on the US-Japan Alliance. Sasakawa US Forum, Issue No 18 [Access: 1.09.2020]. Access on the internet: https://spfusa.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/The-Looming-Cost-Sharing-Storm_Bosack.-formatted.pdf.
US Census Bureau (2020). Trade in Goods with Japan [Access: 4.09.2020]. Access on the internet: https://www.census.gov/foreign-trade/balance/c5880.html.
Chanlett-Avery, E. et al (2019). The US-Japan Alliance, Washington: Congressional Research Service [Access: 7.09.2020]. Access on the internet: https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33740.pdf.
U.S. Code no date [Access: 1.09.2020]. Access on the internet: https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/10/2350j.
Committee on Armed Services. US House of Representatives (1988). Interim Report of the Defense Burdensharing Panel. Washington: US Government Printing Office.
Committee on Armed Services, US Senate (2013). Inquiry into US Costs and Allied Contributions to Support the US Military Presence Overseas [Access: 8.09.2020]. Access on the internet: https://www.armed-services.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/REPORT-FOR-POSTING-4-16-2013-WITH-5-14-2013-CORRECTION.pdf.
The Constitution of Japan (1946) [Access: 6.09.2020]. Access on the internet: https://japan.kantei.go.jp/constitution_and_government_of_japan/constitution_e.html.
US Department of Defense (2004). 2004 Statistical Compendium on Allied Contributions to the Common Defense. [Access: 7.09.2020]. Access on the internet: https://archive.defense.gov/pubs/allied_contrib2004/allied2004.pdf.
US Department of Defense (2018). Summary of the 2018 National Defense Strategy of the United States of America. Sharpening the American Military Competitive Edge, [Access: 27.08.2020]. Access on the internet: https://dod.defense.gov/Portals/1/Documents/pubs/2018-National-Defense-Strategy-Summary.pdf.
US Department of Defense (2018). “Nuclear Posture Review” [Access: 10.09.2020]. Access on the internet: https://dod.defense.gov/News/SpecialReports/2018NuclearPostureReview.aspx.
US Department of Defense (2020). US European Command Force Posture Review [Access: 9.09.2020]. Access on the internet: https://www.defense.gov/Newsroom/Releases/Release/
Article/2292244/department-of-defense-statement-us-european-command-force posturereview/source/GovDelivery/.
DOD Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms (2020) [Access: 25.08.2020]. Access on the internet: https://www.jcs.mil/Portals/36/Documents/Doctrine/pubs/dictionary.pdf.
US Department of State (2020) US Relations With Japan. Bilateral Fact Sheet [Access: 4.09.2020]. Access on the internet: https://www.state.gov/u-s-relations-with-japan/.
Foucault, M., Mérand, F. (2012). The challenge of burden-sharing. “International Journal”,Vol. 67, No 2.
US General Accounting Office (1989). US-Japan Burden Sharing. Japan has Increased Its Contributions, but Could Do More. [Access:1.09.2020]. Access on the internet: https://www.gao.gov/assets/150/148034.pdf.
US General Accounting Office (1990). US-NATO Burden Sharing. Allies’ Contributions to Common Defense. [Access: 27.08.2020]. Access on the internet: https://www.gao.gov/ assets/150/149781.pdf.
Herszenhorn, D. (2019). Trump threatens to punish Germany over military spending. Politico [Access: 9.09.2020]. Access on the internet: https://www.politico.eu/article/donald-trumpthreatens-germany-military-spending/.
Hoff, R. (2016). Burden-Sharing with Allies: Examining the Budgetary Realities. American Action Forum [Access: 9.09.2020]. Access on the internet: https://www.americanactionforum. org/research/burden-sharing-allies-examining-budgetary-realities/.
Hutchinson, E., Day, A. (2018). Is the Cruz Report the end of peacekeeping for Japan?. “Japan Times” [Access: 8.09.2020]. Access on the internet: https://www.japantimes.co.jp/opinion/ 2018/06/12/commentary/japan-commentary/cruz-report-end-peacekeeping-japan/.
Islam, S. (1993). Foreign Aid and Burdensharing: Is Japan Free Riding to a Coprosperity Sphere in Pacific Asia [In:] Frankel, J., Kahler, M., Regionalism and Rivalry: Japan and the United States in Pacific Asia, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Klinger, B. (2020). US-South Korea Burden-Sharing Talk Remain Stuck. Here’s How to Fix It. Heritage Foundation [Access: 9.09.2020]. Access on the internet: https://www.heritage.org/asia/commentary/us-south-korea-burden-sharing-talk-remain-stuck-heres-how-fix-it.
Kohno, M. (1999). In Search of Proactive Diplomacy: Increasing Japan’s International Role in the 1990s. Brookings Institute [Access: 3.09.2020]. Access on the internet: https://www. brookings.edu/research/in-search-of-proactive-diplomacy-increasing-japans-international-rolein-the-1990s/.
Kozlowski, G. (2019a). NATO Defence Expenditures and the Baltic Member-States [In:] Voyger, M., ed., NATO at 70 and the Baltic States: Strengthening the Euro-Atlantic Alliance in an Age of Non-Linear Threats, Tartu: The Baltic Defence College.
Kozlowski, G. (2019b). The Position of Burden Sharing the Current US Security Policy vis-àvis European Allies. “Baltic Journal of European Studies”, Vol. 9, No 4 (29).
Losumbo, M. et al. (2013). Overseas Basing of U.S. Military Forces: An Assessment of Relative Costs and Strategic Benefits. Santa Monica: RAND Corporation.
Maizland, L., Xu, B. (2019). The US-Japan Security Alliance. Council of Foreign Relations [Access: 3.09.2020]. Access on the internet: https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/us-japansecurity-alliance.
Ministry of Defense of Japan (2016). Defense of Japan [Access: 8.09.2020]. Access on the internet: https://www.mod.go.jp/e/publ/w_paper/pdf/2016/DOJ2016_2-4-4_web.pdf.
Ministry of Defense of Japan (2018). Defense of Japan [Access: 6.09.2020]. Access on the internet: https://www.mod.go.jp/e/publ/w_paper/pdf/2018/DOJ2018_Full_1130.pdf.
NATO HQ (1949). The North Atlantic Treaty [Access: 27.08.2020]. Access on the internet: https://www.nato.int/nato_static_fl2014/assets/pdf/stock_publications/20120822_nato_treaty_ en_light_2009.
NATO HQ (2010). Strategic Concept for the Defence and Security of the Members of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization [Access: 31.08.2020]. Access on the internet: https://www. nato.int/strategic concept/pdf/Strat_Concept_web_en.pdf.
NATO HQ (2014). Wales Summit Declaration issued by the Heads of State and Government participating in the meeting of the North Atlantic Council in Wales [Access: 31.08.2020]. Access on the internet: https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/official_texts_112964.htm.
NATO HQ (2019). NATO Secretary General announces increased defence spending by Allies [Access: 9.09.2020]. Access on the internet: https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/news_171458. htm?selectedLocale=en.
“The New York Times” (2016). Transcript: Donald Trump’s Foreign Policy Speech [Access: 9.09.2020]. Access on the internet: https://www.nytimes.com/2016/04/28/us/politics/transcripttrump-foreign-policy.html.
OECD (2019). Development Co-operation Report. 2019: A Fairer, Greener, Safer Tomorrow, Paris: OECD Publishing.
Olson, M., Zeckhauser, R. (1966). An Economic Theory of Alliances. “Review of Economics and Statistics”, No. 48.
Reed, R.F. (1983). The US-Japan Alliance: Sharing the Burden of Defense. Washington: National Defense University Press.
Satake, T. (2012). Japan, Australia and International Security Burden-Sharing with the United
States [In:] Tow, W.T., Kersten, R., eds., Bilateral Perspectives on Regional Security. Australia, Japan and the Asia-Pacific Region. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Shim, E. (2019). Report: Bolton discussed fivefold increase in military burden sharing in Japan. United Press International [Access: 26.08.2020]. Access on the internet: https://www. upi.com/Top_News/World-News/2019/07/31/Report-Bolton-discussed-fivefold-increase-inmilitary-burden-sharing-in-Japan/7201564580052/.
SIPRI (2020). Trends in World Military Expenditure [Access: 6.09.2020]. Access on the internet: https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2020-04/fs_2020_04_milex_0_0.pdf.
Solomon, R. (2018). Japan Must Do More to Support the US-Japan Alliance. The Diplomat [Access: 26.08.2020]. Access on the internet: https://thediplomat.com/2018/09/japan-must-domore-to-support-the-us-japan-alliance/.
Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States of America and Japan (1960) [Access: 4.09.2020]. Access on the internet: http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/ps/japan/mutual_cooperation_treaty.pdf.
Wadhams, N., Jacobs, J. (2019). Trump Seeks Huge Premium From Allies Hosting US Troops.
Bloomberg [Access: 3.09.2020]. Access on the internet: https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-03-08/trump-said-to-seek-huge-premium-from-allies-hosting-u-s-troops.
Weinberger, C. (1987). Report on Allied Contributions to the Common Defense. A Report to the United States Congress [Access:27.08.2020]. Access on the internet: https://apps.dtic.mil/ dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a192414.pdf.
The White House (2017). National Security Strategy of the United States of America [Access: 27.08.2020]. Access on the internet: https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/NSS-Final-12-18-2017-0905.pdf.
Zyla, B. (2016). NATO Burden Sharing: A New Research Agenda. “Journal of International Organizations Studies”, Vol. 7, Issue 2.
All texts published in the journal Humanities and Social Sciences are available in the full version on the website of HSS.
Open Access – CC BY 4.0
This is an open access journal which means that all content is freely available without charge to the user or his/her institution. The articles are published under the terms of the Creative Commons licence (CC-BY 4.0), including the following fields of exploitation comprising:
1) the right to publish the Work in print in book and digital form and to distribute it in book and digital form, including by displaying, playing, broadcasting, making it publicly available by the Publisher and third parties,
2) the right to record and reproduce all or part of the Work on paper and in the form of a digital record and in any other possible way by the Publisher,
3) the right to enter the Work into computer memory and save the Work in the IT systems of the Publisher and other entities distributing digital content,
4) the right to archive the Work and make copies of the Work on electronic media by the Publisher, without quantitative restrictions,
5) the right to digitise the Work and to perform conversions/transformations of the Work in electronic form into other digital formats by the Publisher and third parties,
6) the right to distribute the Work, including via the Internet or other ICT networks by the Publisher and other third parties, in a way that allows viewing, reading, copying the content of the Work in electronic form, i.e. all elements belonging to it, whereby copying shall be understood as the saving of the Work made available to an interested person on a medium of their choice,
7) the right to store the Work in the database of the Publisher and other entities distributing the Work in any form, as well as its processing in the database of the Publisher and third parties,
8) right to translate and publish the Work in one of the modern languages in any form by the Publisher and third parties.
The full text of the license is available at the following link: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/deed.en